The computer has been one of the most amazing and fruitful discoveries man has ever made. It has revolutionized the way man does his things. The way he eats, drinks, sleeps and even thinks. And computer itself has evolved over the years. From the Eniac I to the hand-held palmtops in executives` hands today, computer has changed with the technology. And it has changed our lives too.
The latest addition to this revolution of technical upgrading of computers is the dual-core processor technology. It refers to the CPU (Central Processing Unit- the brains of the computer) that possesses two independent and complete execution cores for each of its two processors. The concerned CPU contains two combined processors along with their cache memories and their respective controllers integrated into a singular circuit (commonly known as a silicon chip).
The dual-core process computer is suited to multitasking and handling miscellaneous tasks (often unrelated to each other). Because its CPU has two completely independent execution cores and both have independent interfaces to the front bus, it has excellent capacity to execute several programs and tasks simultaneously. Similarly, dual-core process computers may have more processor cores which is actually named as a multi-core process computer. These are highly efficient machines to conduct intensive tasks of computing or program execution at the same instance of time.
The Pentium dual-core process computer is the most preferred brand of computer in the market. It has x86-architectured microprocessors integrated onto its circuit. The 32-bit Yonah processors are a base for mobile computers while the 64-bit Allendale processors are maintained for the desktop computers. Both have absolutely different architecture as far as microprocessor technical build is concerned.
By early 2007, Intel decided to launch dual-core process computers in the field of notebooks or laptops too. This was a very important and vital decision as there were no other rivals in this phase if the market of computer architecture. Intel had only decided to launch the dual-core process computer system applying to notebooks on the behest of notebook or laptop manufacturers. The first processors to appear in notebooks using the dual-core process computer technology were the Pentium T2060, T2080 and a 32-bit Pentium M based on the Yonah core with a 1 MB L2 cache, instead of the usual 2MB cache memory.
Intel had forced a return of the Pentium brand to the market arena on 2006 with a host of low-cost single core Conroe-L core architecture processors with a 1 MB cache. These were numbered `1` to distinguish them from dual core process computer cores that had been labeled with the digit `2`.
More recently, on June 3, 2007, Intel released desktop dual-core processors from the Pentium brand. They were named as E2140 and E2160. September 2007 saw the late release of a better and updated model named E2180. These processors support the Intel64 extensions, because of their Allendale derived Core architecture. The power of these dual-core process computers was very imminent as most companies` demands exceeded supply over these multi-processor machines.
Dual-core process computer systems have taken over the world of computing today. As of its multi-tasking ability, it has gained world-wide acclaim due to its efficient, quick and yet superior quality program execution and task completion abilities. Heavier programs and complex games may be run with these dual-core process computer systems at the regular pace of conventional single-core processor systems did with light programs on the execution chart.
The age of computers had begun a long time back. But the age of sleek and efficient computing with the help of razor-edge technology has just begun with the dual-core process computer systems.
Wednesday, January 7, 2009
Tuesday, January 6, 2009
A Brief Introduction into TCP/IP
Many people may not know what TCP/IP is nor what its effect is on the Internet. The fact is, without TCP/IP there would be no Internet. And it is because of the American military that the Internet exists.During the days of the cold war, the defense department was interested in developing a means of electronic communication which could survive an attack by being able to re-route itself around any failed section of the network.They began a research project designed to connect many different networks, and many different types of hardware from various vendors. Thus was the birth of the Internet (sorta). In reality, they were forced to connect different types of hardware from various vendors because the different branches of the military used different hardware. Some used IBM, while others used Unisys or DEC.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) were the protocols they developed. The first Internet was a success because it delivered a few basic services that everyone needed: file transfer, electronic mail, and remote login to name a few. A user could also use the “internet” across a very large number of client and server systems.
As with other communications protocols, TCP/IP is composed of layers. Each layer has it’s own responsibility:
IP is responsible for moving data from computer to computer. IP forwards each packet based on a four-byte destination address (the IP number). IP uses gateways to help move data from point “a” to point “b”. Early gateways were responsible for finding routes for IP to follow.
TCP is responsible for ensuring correct delivery of data from computer to computer. Because data can be lost in the network, TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and completely received.
How TCP/IP works
Computers are first connected to their Local Area Network (LAN). TCP/IP shares the LAN with other systems such as file servers, web servers and so on. The hardware connects via a network connection that has it’s own hard coded unique address – called a MAC (Media Access Control) address. The client is either assigned an address, or requests one from a server. Once the client has an address they can communicate, via IP, to the other clients on the network. As mentioned above, IP is used to send the data, while TCP verifies that it is sent correctly.
When a client wishes to connect to another computer outside the LAN, they generally go through a computer called a Gateway (mentioned above). The gateway’s job is to find and store routes to destinations. It does this through a series of broadcast messages sent to other gateways and servers nearest to it. They in turn could broadcast for a route. This procedure continues until a computer somewhere says “Oh yeah, I know how to get there.” This information is then relayed to the first gateway that now has a route the client can use.
How does the system know the data is correct?
As mentioned above, IP is responsible for getting the data there. TCP then takes over to verify it.
Encoded in the data packets is other data that is used to verify the packet. This data (a checksum, or mathematical representation of the packet) is confirmed by TCP and a confirmation is sent back to the sender.
This process of sending, receiving and acknowledging happens for each individual packet sent over the Internet.
When the data is verified, it is reassembled on the receiving computer. If a package is not verified, the sending computer will re-send it and wait for confirmation. This way both computers – both sending and receiving – know which data is correct and which isn’t.
One nice thing about this protocol is that it doesn’t need to stick to just one route. Generally, when you are sending or receiving data it is taking multiple routes to get to its destination. This ensures data accuracy.
Just the facts:
TCP/IP addresses are based on 4 octets of 8 bits each. Each octet represents a number between 0 and 255. So an IP address looks like: 111.222.333.444.
There are 3 classes of IP addresses:
Ranges starting with “1” and ending with “126” (i.e.. 1.1.1.1 to 126.255.255.254) are Class A
Ranges starting with “128” and ending with 191 (i.e.. 128.1.1.1 to 191.255.255.254) are Class B
Ranges starting with 192 and ending with 254 (i.e.. 192.1.1.1 to 254.255.255.254) are Class C ( You will notice that there are no IP addresses starting with “127”. These are reserved addresses.)
Calculating an IP address
One of the things that always confused me was how to convert IP address to their Binary form. It is quite simple really. IP addresses use the Binary numbers (“1”s and “0”s) and are read from right to left.
Each position in the binary address corresponds to a number, from 1 to 128 and look like this:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
To calculate an address, simply add the numbers where a “1” appears.
For example, the following:
00001010 works out to 10. Like this:
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
You can see that the “1”s line up with the 2 and 8 – when you add 2 plus 8 the answer is 10.
Since an IP address contains 4 of these octets, it can be displayed in binary like:
00001010.00001010.00001010.00001010
Therefore, IP Address 10.129.254.1 would be converted to:
00001010.10000001.11111110.00000001
(8+2) . (128+1) .(128+64+32+8+4+2).(1)
While it’s not important for the average person to know how to figure this stuff out, it is important for someone setting up a small network. That is because TCP/IP also uses what are called subnet masks to determine which addresses are valid.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) were the protocols they developed. The first Internet was a success because it delivered a few basic services that everyone needed: file transfer, electronic mail, and remote login to name a few. A user could also use the “internet” across a very large number of client and server systems.
As with other communications protocols, TCP/IP is composed of layers. Each layer has it’s own responsibility:
IP is responsible for moving data from computer to computer. IP forwards each packet based on a four-byte destination address (the IP number). IP uses gateways to help move data from point “a” to point “b”. Early gateways were responsible for finding routes for IP to follow.
TCP is responsible for ensuring correct delivery of data from computer to computer. Because data can be lost in the network, TCP adds support to detect errors or lost data and to trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and completely received.
How TCP/IP works
Computers are first connected to their Local Area Network (LAN). TCP/IP shares the LAN with other systems such as file servers, web servers and so on. The hardware connects via a network connection that has it’s own hard coded unique address – called a MAC (Media Access Control) address. The client is either assigned an address, or requests one from a server. Once the client has an address they can communicate, via IP, to the other clients on the network. As mentioned above, IP is used to send the data, while TCP verifies that it is sent correctly.
When a client wishes to connect to another computer outside the LAN, they generally go through a computer called a Gateway (mentioned above). The gateway’s job is to find and store routes to destinations. It does this through a series of broadcast messages sent to other gateways and servers nearest to it. They in turn could broadcast for a route. This procedure continues until a computer somewhere says “Oh yeah, I know how to get there.” This information is then relayed to the first gateway that now has a route the client can use.
How does the system know the data is correct?
As mentioned above, IP is responsible for getting the data there. TCP then takes over to verify it.
Encoded in the data packets is other data that is used to verify the packet. This data (a checksum, or mathematical representation of the packet) is confirmed by TCP and a confirmation is sent back to the sender.
This process of sending, receiving and acknowledging happens for each individual packet sent over the Internet.
When the data is verified, it is reassembled on the receiving computer. If a package is not verified, the sending computer will re-send it and wait for confirmation. This way both computers – both sending and receiving – know which data is correct and which isn’t.
One nice thing about this protocol is that it doesn’t need to stick to just one route. Generally, when you are sending or receiving data it is taking multiple routes to get to its destination. This ensures data accuracy.
Just the facts:
TCP/IP addresses are based on 4 octets of 8 bits each. Each octet represents a number between 0 and 255. So an IP address looks like: 111.222.333.444.
There are 3 classes of IP addresses:
Ranges starting with “1” and ending with “126” (i.e.. 1.1.1.1 to 126.255.255.254) are Class A
Ranges starting with “128” and ending with 191 (i.e.. 128.1.1.1 to 191.255.255.254) are Class B
Ranges starting with 192 and ending with 254 (i.e.. 192.1.1.1 to 254.255.255.254) are Class C ( You will notice that there are no IP addresses starting with “127”. These are reserved addresses.)
Calculating an IP address
One of the things that always confused me was how to convert IP address to their Binary form. It is quite simple really. IP addresses use the Binary numbers (“1”s and “0”s) and are read from right to left.
Each position in the binary address corresponds to a number, from 1 to 128 and look like this:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
To calculate an address, simply add the numbers where a “1” appears.
For example, the following:
00001010 works out to 10. Like this:
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
You can see that the “1”s line up with the 2 and 8 – when you add 2 plus 8 the answer is 10.
Since an IP address contains 4 of these octets, it can be displayed in binary like:
00001010.00001010.00001010.00001010
Therefore, IP Address 10.129.254.1 would be converted to:
00001010.10000001.11111110.00000001
(8+2) . (128+1) .(128+64+32+8+4+2).(1)
While it’s not important for the average person to know how to figure this stuff out, it is important for someone setting up a small network. That is because TCP/IP also uses what are called subnet masks to determine which addresses are valid.
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